1. Engaging Religious Communities in Human Rights

Dan Wessner

Volume 12, Issue 2 , March 2018, , Pages 155-180

http://dx.doi.org/10.22096/hr.2018.96639.1081

Abstract

  There is an urgent need for methods by which people and communities of faith peacebuilding and human rights development. This paper argues for a holistic understanding of peacebuilding ...  Read More There is an urgent need for methods by which people and communities of faith peacebuilding and human rights development. This paper argues for a holistic understanding of peacebuilding that includes security of life, a guarantee of subsistence, and the pursuit of other fundamental human rights. This need is especially acute in countries of rising instability or post-conflict rebuilding. More and more countries face a downward spiral of instability even though many leaders and bodies seek to reverse this trend. Sadly, even among those countries that emerge from conflict, one-half revert to conflict within five years. Hence the question this paper addresses is, “How shall people and communities of religious conviction be effectively engaged in a peacebuilding and human rights process?” This people factor is too little understood, even though the role of citizens in transitional states has long been acknowledged as essential for just and sustainable change. For peace accords and international conventions, in and of themselves, do not make peace or deliver human rights. Neither does the arrival of international peacekeepers nor the speeches of clerics and political leaders. While these developments are helpful stimuli, real human peace and security derives from community-based initiatives that create a “positive deviance” for peaceable, rights-oriented living vis-à-vis governments and other forces.  Thus this paper will hypothesize a methodology whereby citizens engage religious institutions, governments (local and national), and international change agents to transform conflict into promising peace and rights. It will identify common peacebuilding principles operating across sectors of human development, security, and rights-oriented work. These sectors may include at least the following: health, conservation, education, security, labor, spirituality, and corporate social responsibility. This paper also seeks to hone a typology of human rights and peacebuilding challenges facing countries of instability and post-conflict rebuilding. Categories may include at least the following: stages and types of conflict, fragile and failed states, overlooked populations, ethnic and racial discrimination, transnational politics and justice, natural resource and wealth distribution, and social capital.

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2. Human Rights, Human Security and Political Theologies

Alejandro Lorite Escorihuela

Volume 11, Issue 2 , January 2017, , Pages 101-128

http://dx.doi.org/10.22096/hr.2016.29853

Abstract

  Human rights, particularly in the form of international human rights law, intersect with religion and peace at foundational levels, as symbolically highlighted by the 1948 Universal ...  Read More Human rights, particularly in the form of international human rights law, intersect with religion and peace at foundational levels, as symbolically highlighted by the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). The Preamble to the Declaration proclaims in its very first line that respect for human dignity is the foundation of peace, and proceeds to declare that freedom of belief, alongside freedom of speech and freedom from fear, are the highest aspirations of humankind. One could similarly highlight the special relationship between the project of human rights, peace and religion, particularly religious tolerance, in the texts of the universal, as well as regional, human rights instruments adopted since 1948, as well as the text of the Charter of the United Nations of 1945. The relationship between contemporary human rights, on the one hand, and religion and peace on the other, is arguably determined by the structure of international human rights law as a political discourse, which describes the relationship between individuals, society and the State. The visible influence of social contract theory on the wording of the Universal Declaration reminds us that from its inception, the project of human rights is intimately linked to religious diversity (because of the birth of modern sovereignty in European wars of religion and evangelical imperialism) and peace (because of the connection that the Declaration draws between the stability of States and respect for the human dignity of citizens). Against this known conceptual and historical backdrop, this paper starts with the displacement, at the global level, of human rights by the ambiguous discourse of "human security," since the early 1990s. A general idea is that "human security", which has rapidly evolved to become an organizing principle of policy-making for governments as well as non-governmental and inter-governmental organizations, constitutes an alternative, sometimes deliberately advocated as such, to the discourse of human rights. Although received, and arguably uninformed, commonsense considers human rights as a threat to State sovereignty, the confrontation of human rights with "human security" reveals, first, how human rights is bound to sovereignty and, second, how "human security" refers to political parameters that are foreign to those of the UDHR. In that sense, this paper discusses how the structurally very deep relationship between peace, religion, and the project of equality in diversity promoted within international law by the UDHR is sidelined by the general project of "global governance," to which "human security" has contributed a legitimate basis for disregarding the sovereignty on which human rights depend. Methodologically, the paper seeks to bring together a structured and coherent conceptual backdrop to the resistance offered more recently by a group of States to the continuous use of "human security" within the United Nations and beyond. This is done through the use of the technical notion of "political theology," which systematizes the foundational place of religion in political discourse by describing political-theoretical language (such as that of the Universal Declaration) as secularized versions of religious worldviews. This allows for a constructive confrontation of human rights and "human security" as parallel political projects, in a way that describes the project of "human security," connected as it is with other strategic concepts of global governance (like the "responsibility to protect"), as a threat to the original architecture of international human rights law. This threat is shown to derive from "human security's" potential hostility to both human rights' international law component (sovereignty) as well as its human rights component (equality in diversity), particularly by associating humanitarian concerns with the passing security concerns of dominant States. 

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3. Logical Relation of Human Rights and Religion

Mohammad Hossein Talebi

Volume 08, Issue 1 , April 2013, , Pages 23-40

Abstract

  Before establishing any kind of rights for human being, the man should be first known. The best approach to know human being is to utilize the knowledge and teachings that God has given ...  Read More Before establishing any kind of rights for human being, the man should be first known. The best approach to know human being is to utilize the knowledge and teachings that God has given us as the Creator of man. He knows better than anyone else the man whom He has created. This article tries to show that the Man who has (human) rights is not that human being as we are used to know him by popular experimental view, but is an existent that is constantly moving on the path of absolute perfection with the aim of achieving the status of the perfect man. To prove this, at this writing, first the concept of right has been studied with an epistemological and ontological look, and look then the concepts of human and religion will be considered.and investigated. Finally, different kinds of the rights of  right owners, which one of these rights is human rights, are discussed. Human rights are those rights that belong to every individual because he/she is a human being. -free framework, which has constituted the basis of mainstream conceptions of Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Criticizing the deontological view, this article defends the teleological approach toward the universality of human rights, based on contemporary philosophical hermeneutics specially Paul Ricoeur’s outlook. I argue that this approach can provide the philosophical requirements for interaction between the universality of human rights on one hand and the cultural and local contents of various societies on the other hand and offers a “thick” conception of human rights principles.   

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4. Communal Dimension of the Right to Freedom of Religion

Mohammad Habibi Modjandeh

Volume 08, Issue 1 , April 2013, , Pages 1-12

Abstract

  Right to freedom of religion is one of the fundamental human rights recognized in all general international human rights instruments. The basic standard which, with minor differences, ...  Read More Right to freedom of religion is one of the fundamental human rights recognized in all general international human rights instruments. The basic standard which, with minor differences, is followed by subsequent instruments is embodied in Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Article speaks of the right as the right of everyone “to freedom of thought, conscience and religion”. It further states that “this right includes … freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance” (emphasis added). Thus, the right is a complex right. This complexity arises not only from the fact that the right encompaces two internal and external elements (maintaining, adopting or changing a religion and manifesting it) but from the statement that it comprises both individual and communal or collective dimensions. The communal aspect of the right relates to freedom to manifest one’s religion or belief. While the content of the right to freedom of religion is far from being settled, the communal dimension of the right seems to be the most controvercial. The law, doctrine and practice of international human rights do not shed much light on the content and extent of this dimension of the right. There are serious questions here. Does the communal aspect of the right give an entitlement to a community of a religion’s believers to establish a political authority to enact, execute and implement the teachings of their religion? Does this communal dimension validates a legal system based on the rules of a particular religion? Put it another way, does the right to freedom of religion support the claim of a community to establish a religious state in order to give effect to or manifest the tenets of their religion? The answer to this set of questions is not clear. When the issue is put in a broader context it does relate to the question of the (in)compatibility of a religious state with human rights. This article is an attempt to put forward some reflections and remarks on the above series of questions. The author’s argument is that the communal dimension of the right to manifest one’s religion warrants the claim of the majority of a population to establish a religious legal system based on the teachings of their religion provided that the system does not come into conflict with other internationally recognized human rights.

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5. The Universal Islamic Declaration on Human Rights and the Problem of Inequalities of Rights between Men and Women

Seyyed Sadegh Haghighat

Volume 07, Issue 2 , October 2012, , Pages 51-66

Abstract

  Communitarians as the critics of liberalism involve a spectrum from the left (such as A. McIntyre) to the right (such as M. Walzer). They are Concentrated on some concepts such as "self", ...  Read More Communitarians as the critics of liberalism involve a spectrum from the left (such as A. McIntyre) to the right (such as M. Walzer). They are Concentrated on some concepts such as "self", "tradition" and "particularism". One of their critiques in ethics and human rights is that these two spheres should be enriched by culture and tradition. For this reason, they consider liberalism as a school of thought which believes in thin human rights. It seems that religious and Islamic point of view is closer to communitarianism than liberalism.

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6. The Sovereignty of God and Sovereignty of People in Iran's Constitution

Mahmood Shafiee

Volume 07, Issue 2 , October 2012, , Pages 67-80

Abstract

  Sovereignty of God and sovereignty of people in the Constitution are not contradictory but it is a two-sided sovereignty, implemented by people through both establishing a political ...  Read More Sovereignty of God and sovereignty of people in the Constitution are not contradictory but it is a two-sided sovereignty, implemented by people through both establishing a political system and every day public life without violating the limited eternal and general religious laws. Hence, the source of popular sovereignty in the Constitution of Islamic Republic is different from the source of sovereignty in both secular and traditional theocratic political systems. In the secular system, sovereignty belongs to people and is implemented by them regardless of God's sovereignty and God's laws and in the theocratic system; God's sovereignty is realized unilaterally, regardless of people's will, by a person who is the direct deputy of God on the earth. Although legitimacy in Islamic republic has two sources, but they are so interpenetrated with each other that realization of each one relies on the other. Because of natural as well as legal god-given freedom of human beings, they can realize their sovereignty on the earth within the framework of God's general ordinances. In return, the sovereignty of God is implemented on the earth only by human being's free will.

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7. Prohibition of Corporal Punishment of Children by Teachers and Educators with Special Emphasis on Role of Clerics and Religious Leaders in Confronting It

Mohammad Mahdi Meghdadi

Volume 07, Issue 1 , April 2012, , Pages 37-48

Abstract

  One of the disturbing aspects of child abuse and violence is corporal punishment of children by teachers, educators and staff in educational contexts. Despite the prohibition of such ...  Read More One of the disturbing aspects of child abuse and violence is corporal punishment of children by teachers, educators and staff in educational contexts. Despite the prohibition of such actions in the national and international regulations particularly in the CRC, and potential adverse consequences of physical abuse, drawing on their false and unfounded customs and beliefs, many still maintain that teachers and educators have the right to use corporal punishment. Furthermore, citing certain religious teachings, some researchers have confirmed this and even suggested that teachers, like parents, have this punishment right. Stressing the prohibition of corporal punishment of children by teachers and educators in national and international regulations, this article examines its impermissibility from jurisprudential perspective. It also deals with the influential role religious leaders and clerics can play in fighting against violence against children and removing the misconceptions and wrong beliefs about corporal punishment. This issue has been addressed in the 8th declaration of the World Assembly of Religions for Peace (Kyoto, 2006) but has not received enough attention.

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8. Changing the Trajectory: the Religious Underpinnings of Children’s Right to Freedom From Corporal Punishment

Lorraine Wolhuter

Volume 06, Issue 2 , October 2011, , Pages 2-12

Abstract

  No Abstract No Abstract   Read More No Abstract No Abstract 

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9. Religious Foundations of Asylum and the Challenges of Contemporary Practice

Samuel Cheung

Volume 06, Issue 1 , April 2011, , Pages 13-28

Abstract

  No Abstract No Abstract   Read More No Abstract No Abstract 

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10. Human Rights from Ethnocentric Myths to Humanitarian Religions

Mohammad reza Nazari; Reza Parastesh

Volume 05, Issue 2 , October 2010, , Pages 29-38

Abstract

  Primitive human being because of the lack of knowledge about phenomena believed in the belief and ritual system with the purpose of keeping his worldly economic life. The priority of ...  Read More Primitive human being because of the lack of knowledge about phenomena believed in the belief and ritual system with the purpose of keeping his worldly economic life. The priority of belief to existence was the nature of this belief system (mythical ideology) in which the existence of human being and observing his rights was subject to governing belief system. Religions were coincident to the time of human social life, when he came to understand causation rule and to know that his economic life was not related to will of the various Gods and the aim of religions is not to govern the world but to develope human being. Religions accepted the governing of wisdom for managing of society. To understand the real causes of phenomena instead of spirits and Gods, caused human freedom and his control of his destiny and paved the way for the priority of existence to belief. In fact, for this reason and also for superior position of morality in religions, religions must be regard as a supporter of human rights.

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11. Relative or Absolute Freedom of Expression as One of Human Rights In Islamic and Western Foundations

Badri Borandegi

Volume 05, Issue 2 , October 2010, , Pages 39-54

Abstract

  Freedom of expression is a human right. Some experts agree with absolute freedom of expression. For them, the freedom of expression makes all options to be heard; the extent of people’s ...  Read More Freedom of expression is a human right. Some experts agree with absolute freedom of expression. For them, the freedom of expression makes all options to be heard; the extent of people’s participation to increase, democracy to be protected and dogmatic rituals to be challenged. Some experts have opposed absolute freedom of expression. Comparing to poisonous food they believe that those who are aware of toxic thoughts, should prevent their circulation in the society. Does Islam accept relative or absolute freedom of expression? This paper is trying to answer this question through dealing with the Islamic and Western foundations of freedom of expression. pirits and Gods, caused human freedom and his control of his destiny and paved the way for the priority of existence to belief. In fact, for this reason and also for superior position of morality in religions, religions must be regard as a supporter of human rights.  

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12. Religiosity and Human Rights "A Comparative Study of the Relationship between Religiosity and Orientation to Human Rights among the Iranian Men and Women"

Majid Movahed; Maryam Hosseini

Volume 05, Issue 2 , October 2010, , Pages 55-72

Abstract

  “Human rights” issue and its relationship with religious teachings is one of the controversial debates among thinkers. The aim of present study is to deal with the amount ...  Read More “Human rights” issue and its relationship with religious teachings is one of the controversial debates among thinkers. The aim of present study is to deal with the amount of urban educated Iranians orientation to human rights on the one hand and the relationship of their religiosity with this orientation on the other hand. The nature of this study is exploratory, and a sample of 214 respondents was selected in the city of Shiraz. For data collection, interview schedule is main tool. The data in the present study clearly shows that all our respondents are favorably inclined toward human rights; however women are more inclined than men. It also shows that a very large proportion of the sample is quite religious. Further, the data reveals that the relationship between the tendency to gender justice and Islamic values were statistically significant, and there is a significant difference among gender of the respondents and their suggestions for increasing human rights in social life. 

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13. Religious Foundations for Human Rights and Responsibilities

George F. McLean

Volume 05, Issue 2 , October 2010, , Pages 1-14

Abstract

  The contributions of Greek philosophy to human understanding are broadly known and deeply appreciated. Perhaps less appreciated are its contribution to the religious understanding of ...  Read More The contributions of Greek philosophy to human understanding are broadly known and deeply appreciated. Perhaps less appreciated are its contribution to the religious understanding of Christianity and Islam. These need to be known and celebrated. At the same time, however, it is important to be aware of the limitations of the ancient Greek mind in order to shed light on the later contributions of the great monotheistic religions to the appreciation of the dignity of all human beings as persons in the image of God. This, in turn, provides the realist metaphysical foundation for the rights of persons and peoples. That is Part I of this study. Part II will examine, in contrast, the secularizing character of the modern humanistic and rationalistic paradigm. This results in the paradox that the very dynamism whereby human rights are strongly affirmed eats away at their foundations. Part III will then search for ways of restoring the religious foundations of human rights for our global age.

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14. Opportunities and Challenges for the Engagement of Islamic Religious Leaders in Children’s Rights from the Perspective of UNICEF Iran

Christian Salazar Volkmann

Volume 05, Issue 1 , April 2010, , Pages 1-6

Abstract

  No Abstract; No Abstract   Read More No Abstract; No Abstract 

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15. Preventive Measures Taken by Islam to Avoid Bloodshed and War with Non-Muslims

Mohammad Rasoul Ahangaran

Volume 04, Issue 2 , October 2009, , Pages 41-56

Abstract

  It is important to prevent bloodshed and war to the extent that it is proper to pay maximum attention to prevention of conflict in comparison with trying to extinguish the flames of ...  Read More It is important to prevent bloodshed and war to the extent that it is proper to pay maximum attention to prevention of conflict in comparison with trying to extinguish the flames of war. Although trying to achieve reconciliation between conflict parties is in itself important, it is less important than prevention of conflict. Since the followers of any religion or sect, regard themselves right and others wrong and on the other hand there is some thing seen in many religions or sects concerning the killing of other religions or sects’ followers, these two may cause religious or doctrinal motivated- or otherwise but with doctrinal or religious color- conflict and war between the followers of religions or sects. Islam has taken preventive measures to avoid many conflicts and bloodshed between Muslims with the followers of other religions. Compared with other religions in this regard it will be clear that how much Islam seeks peaceful and safe environment

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16. Terrorism, Religion and The Challenges Human Rights Face

Sajad Karimi Pashaki; Emran Alizadeh

Volume 04, Issue 2 , October 2009, , Pages 75-92

Abstract

  Peaceful life is one of the first wants of human being which are always threatened with war, civil, regional and global conflict, organized crimes, terrorism, etc. Terrorism development ...  Read More Peaceful life is one of the first wants of human being which are always threatened with war, civil, regional and global conflict, organized crimes, terrorism, etc. Terrorism development generally marks unfavorable environments, social- class inequality, poverty and violence of human rights. Therefore, terrorism is regarded as a new global challenge in the 3rd millennium aiming at human societies. The activities of terrorists not only do not lead to obtaining their rights or political demands but also while diminishing the bases of global peace; they will challenge human rights. Trying to deal with the relationship between religion and terrorism, this research will investigate the effect of subversive and terrorist activities on human rights and will consider the establishment of the ground for peace geography in conflict environments. It seems that, in general, the environments of terrorism development and growth are backward and underdeveloped in terms of politics, economics and culture due to internal problems or external interference, where religious extremists go toward sectarian violence providing the emergence of religious terrorism. Therefore, human rights will always face the danger of violence and damage

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17. Inter-Religious Communication: Celebrating Difference, Celebrating Understanding

Oliver Leaman; Mehri Niknam

Volume 03, Issue 2 , October 2008, , Pages 69-84

Abstract

  The topic of interreligious communication is frequently defended as significant if different ethnic and religious groups are to coexist. Any society that consists of different religious ...  Read More The topic of interreligious communication is frequently defended as significant if different ethnic and religious groups are to coexist. Any society that consists of different religious groups has to establish some rules of cooperation that cuts across the religious divide.  However, there are problems in such interreligious communication; if one is convinced of the truth of a particular position; it is difficult to consider seriously whether it is really true. Yet the ideology of liberalism is based on the free flow of ideas and the constant readiness of the individual to consider his religious standpoint. Interreligious communication may be seen not as challenging others’ beliefs but merely as exchanging ideas and views. The paper will deal with this theoretical issue and link it with the practical data that has arisen from the work of the Maimonides Foundation, an organization in London that works to foster communication between Muslims and Jews.

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18. Religious Identity, Difference, and Human Rights

Gerhard Robbers

Volume 01, Issue 2 , October 2006, , Pages 49-54

Abstract

  Religion is a dominant factor in the identity of individuals as well as of peoples. The identity of individuals concerning their religion is a highly private matter. In forming a people’s ...  Read More Religion is a dominant factor in the identity of individuals as well as of peoples. The identity of individuals concerning their religion is a highly private matter. In forming a people’s identity religion is of public importance and fulfils public functions. The paper describes the function of religion in forming identities in several Western European countries. It takes France, the United Kingdom, Germany and Poland, as well as some other European states to analyse differences as well as common features in historical and contemporary experience.

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19. Human Rights, Religious Identity, and the Private-Public Distinction

Saladin Meckled-Garcia; Basak Cali

Volume 01, Issue 2 , October 2006, , Pages 55-66

Abstract

  It is thought that by respecting an adequately drawn private (or personal) sphere, political institutions can give sufficient freedom to people to develop their distinct cultural and ...  Read More It is thought that by respecting an adequately drawn private (or personal) sphere, political institutions can give sufficient freedom to people to develop their distinct cultural and religious identities without compromising human rights values. The public sphere is where rights are observed, the private is where rights claims have no role. However, the distinction between the private and the public sphere is a difficult one to draw. In this paper we argue that there is no pre-theoretical notion of the public and private, but rather that the boundaries between private and public are themselves sensitive to the moral theory of rights one adopts. So rather than rights being understood in terms of the public and the private, the public and private distinction should be understood in terms of rights. As evidence for the lack of an independent distinction we cite a study of cases in European courts, where the public-private distinction was paramount in adjudicating the rights of religious minorities.

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20. Interaction Between Divine and Secular Approaches to Human Rights

Seyed Ali Mirmousavi

Volume 01, Issue 2 , October 2006, , Pages 67-84

Abstract

  Many regard secularism as a requisite premise of human rights promotion. From this point of view, compatibility or incompatibility between Islam and human rights depends on the possibility ...  Read More Many regard secularism as a requisite premise of human rights promotion. From this point of view, compatibility or incompatibility between Islam and human rights depends on the possibility of secular interpretation of Islam. This claim is based on the belief that human rights belong to human beings as they are human beings. Therefore, equal enjoyment of these rights is in contradiction to the separation of individuals based on their religions and beliefs. But a religious government, due to its regulating the individual and communal relations in accordance with a single recognized religion, will necessarily turn to the separation. What this article is going to deal with is that which interpretation of religious government has more cooperation with human rights.  

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21. A Report on the Meeting of International Experts on Human Rights in Islam (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 15-19 May 2006)

Ali Mosavi

Volume 01, Issue 2 , October 2006, , Pages 85-100

Abstract

  A Meeting of International Experts on Human Rights in Islam was held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia from to 15 to 19 May2006. The Meeting was organized by the Government of Malaysia in collaboration ...  Read More A Meeting of International Experts on Human Rights in Islam was held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia from to 15 to 19 May2006. The Meeting was organized by the Government of Malaysia in collaboration with the Asian African Legal Consultative Organization (AALCO) Secretariat and the Government of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The main theme of the Meeting was "Understanding Human Rights as Understood in Islam". Based on this theme the Meeting was set to serve as a platform for experts from various fields to examine Islamic principles on human rights. In the Meeting, six plenary were convened titled following: Plenary 1: General Overview of Human Rights-Islamic Law and International Law Plenary 2: Islam and Human Rights- Managing Diversity Plenary 3: Civil and Political Rights (Fundamental Liberties) Plenary 4: Social, Economic and Cultural Rights (Growth and Equity) Plenary 5: Human Rights of Women and Children Plenary 6: Islam and war on Terrorism All of the Experts, who contributed in the Meeting, dissuaded misunderstanding of Islam and Muslims, predominantly against the back drop of the current manufactured tensions between the Muslims and the non-Muslim worlds.

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22. Freedom; Ancient and Modern

Minu Agha’ee Khuzani

Volume 01, Issue 1 , April 2006, , Pages 53-66

Abstract

  Modern conceptions of freedom are developed in the new intellectual trends among religious scholars the relations between freedom and concepts such as religion, justice, truth and government ...  Read More Modern conceptions of freedom are developed in the new intellectual trends among religious scholars the relations between freedom and concepts such as religion, justice, truth and government being differently explained. Introducing these conceptions this article attempts to make clear the distinction between them and the ancient ones, and at the same time, to show that different views of freedom stem from more basic differences regarding: human being, the elements making his humanity, his ability to determine the face and character of his life, his capability to exercise his freedoms, his expectations from religion, the possibility of knowing truth its instruments and obstacles , the government and its relationship with the individual and above all, fundamental human rights.

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23. Women’s Identity in Christianity

Jassent Salibi

Volume 01, Issue 1 , April 2006, , Pages 103-114

Abstract

  In the modern era, identity and identity-finding are influenced by three trends: modernism, post modernism and trans-post modernism. In each trend, a specific approach towards the issue ...  Read More In the modern era, identity and identity-finding are influenced by three trends: modernism, post modernism and trans-post modernism. In each trend, a specific approach towards the issue of identity is seen. This article first deals with each of the three trends as well as their impact on the issue of identity, particularly women’s identity and then reviews the picture presented from women’s identity and rights in the Bible (the Old Testament and the New Testament)

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