1) Treaties/Statutes
India, Government of Manipur. The Manipur Protection from Mob Violence Ordinance. November 9, 2018, Ordinance No. 3 of 2018. https://manipur.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/mobviolence.pdf.
India, Parliament. Constitution of India. Entered into force January 26, 1950. https://legislative.gov.in/constitution-of-india.
India, Parliament. Indian Penal Code (IPC). Entered into force October 6, 1860, Act no. 45 of 1860. https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/
123456789/4219/1/THE-INDIAN-PENAL-CODE-1860.pdf.
India, Parliament. Prevention of Communal and Targeted Violence (Access to Justice and Reparations) Bill. Tabled for consideration on July 25, 2011. https://prsindia.org/files/bills_acts/bills_parliament/2005/NA
C_Draft_Communal_Violence_Bill_2011.pdf.
India, Parliament. The Prasar Bharati (Broadcasting Corporation of India) Act. Enacted on September 12, 1990, Act no. 25 of 1990. https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1959?view_type=browse.
India, Parliament. The Prevention of Mob Lynching Bill, Introduced in Lok Sabha. August 10, 2022, Bill No. 209 of 2022. https://sansad.in/
getFile/BillsTexts/LSBillTexts/Asintroduced/209%20OF%202022%20AS12122022115556AM.pdf?source=legislation.
United Nations General Assembly. Adoption of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide and Text of the Convention. Adopted December 9, 1948, A/RES/260 (III).
United Nations General Assembly. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). New York, Entered into force September 3, 1981, 1249 UNTS 13.
United Nations General Assembly. Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief. Entered into force November 25, 1981, A/RES/36/55.
United Nations General Assembly. Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities (United Nations Minorities Declaration). Adopted February 3, 1992, A/RES/47/135.
United Nations General Assembly. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD). Entered into force January 4, 1969, A/RES/2106(XX).
United Nations General Assembly. International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families. Entered into force July 1, 2003, A/RES/45/158.
United Nations General Assembly. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). Entered into force March 23, 1976, 999 UNTS 17.
United Nations General Assembly. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). Entered into force January 3, 1976, A/RES/2200A(XXI).
United Nations General Assembly. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). adopted December 10, 1948, A/RES/217(III).
United Nations Human Rights Committee. Minority Rights: International Standards and Guidance for Implementation. adopted January 1, 2010, HR/PUB/10/3.
2) Cases
Badshah v Urmila Godse and Another, (2014) 1 SCC 188.
Francis Coraleiv v Union Territory of Delhi AIR 1981 SC 746.
In re: Kerala Education Bill, 1959 1 SCR 995.
Joginder Kumar v State of Uttar Pradesh AIR 1994 SC 1349.
Olga Tellis v Bombay Municipal Corporation AIR 1986 SC 180.
R Rajagopal v State of Tamil Nadu AIR 1995 SC 264.
R. Sukanya v R Sridhar AIR 2008 Mad 244.
Riggins v. US, 199 U.S. 547 (1905)
Satwant Singh v Assistant Passport Officer, New Delhi AIR 1967 SC 1836.
Shreya Singhal v Union of India (2013) 12 SCC 73.
Subhash Kumar v State of Bihar (1991) 1 SCC 598.
Tehseen S Poonawalla & Ors v Union of India & Ors (2018) 9 SCC 501.
3) Books
Castellino, Joshua. “How Effective Has CERD Been in Protecting Minorities?” In Fifty Years of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination: A Living Instrument, edited by Keane David and Waughray Annapurna, 227-245. Manchester: MUP, 2017.
De, Rohit. A People's Constitution: The Everyday Life of Law in the Indian Republic. PUP, 2018.
Dharampal-Frick, Gita, Monika Kirloskar-Steinbach, Rachel Dwyer, and Jahnavi Phalkey. “Introduction.” In Key Concepts in Modern Indian Studies, ix-xvi. NYU Press, 2015.
Golwalkar, Madhav Sadashiv. We, or Our Nationhood Defined. Nagpur: Bharat Publications, 1939.
Hitler, Adolph. Mein Kempf. Munich: Franz Ezher Verlag, 1925.
Jaffrelot, Christophe, and Narendra Kumar. Dr Ambedkar and Democracy. OUP, 2018.
Jaffrelot, Christophe. “Hindutva.” In Key Concepts in Modern Indian Studies, edited by Gita Dharampal-Frick, Monika Kirloskar-Steinbach, Rachel Dwyer, and Jahnavi Phalkey, 108-110, NYU Press, 2015.
Kashyap, Subhash C. Constitutional Law of India: An Exhaustive Article-Wise Commentary on the Constitution of India with Comprehensive Coverage of Background, Review, and Reform. ULP, 2008.
Mehta, Pratap Bhanu. “India’s Judiciary: The Promise of Uncertainty.” In India’s Public Institutions, edited by Pratap Mehta and Devesh Kapur, 158-193. OUP, 2005.
National Crime Records Bureau. Crime in India 2019 – Statistics Volume 1. New Delhi: National Crime Records Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs, 2020. https://www.ncrb.gov.in/uploads/nationalcrimerecor
dsbureau/custom/1653730573_CII%202019%20Volume%201.pdf.
Savarkar, Vinayak Damodar. Hindutva. New Delhi: Bharti Sahitya Sadan, 1923.
Walters, Mark A., Rupert Brown, and Susann Wiedlitzka. Causes and Motivations of Hate Crime. Equality and Human Rights Commission, July 2016. https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/
sites/default/files/research-report-102-causes-and-motivations-of-hate-crime.pdf.
4) Journal Articles
Amrutkar, Prashant. “Indian Secularism: Is it a way out to communalism?” IJPS 71, no.3 (July – Sept. 2010): 745-751. https://www.jstor.org/
stable/42748406.
Angelo, Carlo de, and Tolino, Serina. “Minorities as Subjects and Minorities as Producers of Islamic Law: Past and Present.” In Islamic Law and Minorities, JAIS 17 (2017): 143-155. https://www.academia.edu/
35785771/Islamic_Law_and_Minorities_Themed_Section.
Annapurna, C.R. “The Theoretical Understanding of Communalism and Its Growth in India.” IICQ 42, no. 2 (Autumn 2015): 25-36. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26316550.
Azcárate, Pablo de. “Protection of Minorities and Human Rights.” 243 AAAPSS 243 (January 1946): 124-28. https://www.jstor.org/
stable/1025066.
Barten, Ulrike. “What's in a Name? Peoples, Minorities, Indigenous Peoples, Tribal Groups and Nations.” Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe 14, no.1 (2015): 1-25. https://www.ecmi.de/
fileadmin/downloads/publications/JEMIE/2015/Barten.pdf.
Bhanot, Pankaj. “Minorities in India.” IJGR 1, no.2 (1993): 137-157. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24674448.
Bhat, M. Mohsin Alam. “The Case for Collecting Hate Crimes Data in India.” Law and Policy Brief 4, no. 9 (2018), accessed July 27, 2023, https://ssrn.com/abstract=3367329.
Burk, James. “Crossing the Gods: World Religions and Worldly Politics. By N.J. Demerath III. New Brunswick: N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2001. 284 pp. $28.00.” Journal of Church and State 44, no. 4 (Autumn 2002): 823–824. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcs/44.4.823.
Chakraborty, Ankita, and Dipa Dube. “The Quest for Truth in Criminal Justice- Revisiting the Malimath Committee Recommendations.” Indian Journal of Criminology 46-47 (2018-19). https://nludelhi.ac.
in/download/publication/Indian%20Journal%20of%20Criminology%202018-19.pdf.
Chopra, Surabhi. “Archives of Violence: Seeking and Preserving Records on Mass Sectarian Attacks in India,” NLSIR 28, no.1 (2016): 61-73. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44283665.
D’Souza, Radha. “The Conceptual World of the Ghadarites.” Journal of The Society for Socialist Studies 13, no. 2 (October 2018): 15-37. https://doi.org/10.18740/ss27241.
Engineer, Asghar Ali. “Islam and Muslims in India: Problems of Identity and Existence.” Oriente Moderno 23, no. 84 (2004): 71-82. www.jstor.org/stable/25817918.
Fombad, Charles M. “Challenges to Constitutionalism and Constitutional Rights in Africa and the Enabling Role of Political Parties: Lessons and Perspectives from Southern Africa.” American Journal of Comparative Law 55, no. 1 (January 2007): 1-45, https://www.jstor.
org/stable/20454564.
Ghatak, Sambuddha, and E Ike Udogu. “Human Rights Issues of Minorities In Contemporary India: A Concise Analysis.” JTWS 29, no.1 (Spring 2012): 203-220. http://www.jstor.com/stable/45194859.
Gupta, Dipankar. “Citizens Versus People: The Politics of Majoritarianism and Marginalization in Democratic India.” Sociology of Religion 68, no.1 (March 2007): 27-44. https://doi.org/10.1093/socrel/68.1.27.
Haq, Rana, Alain Klarsfeld, Angela Kornau, and Faith Wambura Ngunjiri. “Diversity in India: Addressing Caste, Disability and Gender.” EDI 39, no.6 (July 2020): 585–596. https://doi.org/10.1108/EDI-04-2020-0095.
Lennox, Corinne. Human Rights, Minority Rights, Non-Discrimination and Pluralism: A Mapping Study of Intersections for Practitioners. Global Centre for Pluralism, 2018. https://www.pluralism.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Corinne-Lennox-Human-Rights.pdf.
Lewis, David, and Joshua Castellino. “Establishing a Different Dimension of Citizen Security: The Case for Special Protection for Whistleblowers.” BLR 4, no. 4 (2013): 185-197. http://dx.doi.org/10.
4236/blr.2013.44024.
Macklem, Patrick. “Minority rights in international law.” IJCL 6, no. 3-4 (September 2008): 531-552. https://doi.org/10.1093/icon/mon019.
Myers, Nathaniel. “Right Tilt: India and the BJP.” HIR 23, no.1 (2001): 7-8. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42762650.
Noorani, A.G. “Minority Rights and Human Rights.” Economic and Political Weekly 41, no.18 (May 2006): 1741-42 https://www.jstor.org/
stable/4418165.
Pejic, Jelena. “Minority Rights in International Law.” HRQ 19, no.3 (August 1997): 666-685. https://www.jstor.com/stable/762728.
Petričušić, Antonija. “The Rights of Minorities in International Law: Tracing Developments in Normative Arrangements of International Organizations.” CIRR 11, no. 38/39 (March 2005): 47-57. https://hrcak.srce.hr/6628.
Rahman, Khalid. “Indian Secularism and Religious Minorities: The Case of Muslims.” Policy Perspectives 14, no.2 (2017): 35–53. https://doi.org/10.13169/polipers.14.2.0035.
Ramachandran, Sudha. “Hindutva Violence in India: Trends and Implications.” Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses 12, no. 4 (June 2020): 15-20, www.jstor.org/stable/26918077.
Ramachandran, Sudha. “India: Fanning the Flames of Extremism and Terror at Home,” The Jamestown Foundation 18, no. 1 (January 2020): 7-9. https://jamestown.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/TM-Jan.-14-2020-Issue.pdf?x41867.
Sen, Satadaru. “Fascism Without Fascists? A Comparative Look at Hindutva and Zionism,” South Asia: JSAS 38, no.4 (2015): 691. https://doi-org.uow.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/00856401.2015.1077924.
Shibli, Murtaza. “Hindutva Vigilantism and Muslims Institutionalization of Violence.” Policy Perspectives 16, no.1 (2019): 137-148. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13169/polipers.16.1.0137.
Varshney, Ashutosh. “Understanding Gujarat Violence by Contemporary Conflicts,” SSRC 4, no. 1 (Winter 2004): 1-40. https://issuu.com/ssr
citemsissues/docs/i_i_vol_4_no_1_2003?e=24618429/35326188.
Wani, Hilal, and Sakina Khazir. “Discourse on Minority Rights, Identity, and Exclusion: An Indian Perspective.” Sosiohumanika: Jurnal Pendidikan Sains Sosial dan Kemanusiaan 12, no. 1 (May 2019): 1-18. https://journals.mindamas.com/index.php/sosiohumanika/article
/view/1146.
Wing, Adriene Katherine. “International Law, Secularism, and the Islamic World.” AUILR 24, no. 3 (2009): 407-428. https://digitalcommons.
wcl.american.edu/auilr/vol24/iss3/1.
5) Websites/Online Content
“Framework Decision on Combating Certain Forms and Expressions of Racism and Xenophobia by Means of Criminal Law.” EU law - EUR-Lex, Accessed May 22, 2020, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=LEGISSUM:l33178.
Agarwal, Devika. “Hate Speech in India: Media's Rabble-rousing Doesn't Help Cause, Proves Counter-productive to Free Speech.” Firstpost, September 14, 2018, https://www.firstpost.com/india/hate-speech-in-india-medias-rabble-rousing-doesnt-help-cause-proves-counter-productive-to-free-speech-5182231.html.
Ali, Mohammed. “The Rise of a Hindu Vigilante in the Age of WhatsApp and Modi.” Wired, April 14, 2020, https://www.wired.com/
story/indias-frightening-descent-social-media-terror.
Amnesty International India. “Hate Crime Reports on an Alarming Rise – Reveals Amnesty International India’s ‘Halt the Hate.” October 24, 2019, https://amnesty.org.in/news-update/hate-crime-reports-on-an-alarming-rise-reveals-amnesty-international-indias-halt-the-hate.
Balram. “Hitler, Hindutva and Its Allies.” Counter Currents, published December 1, 2003, https://www.countercurrents.org/comm-balram
011203.htm.
Baxi, Upendra. “Re-arming the Law.” Indian Express, July 21, 2017, https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/re-arming-the-law-targeted-killings-bill-bjp-lynching-4760192.
Bhatia, Sidharth. “The Establishment Has Sent a Hard-Core Message to Dissenters and Critics.” The Wire, June 25, 2019, https://thewire.in/rights/the-establishment-has-sent-a-hard-core-message-to-dissenters-and-critics.
Darwish, Najwan. “In Hell – Najwan Darwish – Palestine.” Poetry International, accessed June 1, 2022, https://www.poetryinternation
al.org/pi/poem/22188/auto/0/0/Najwan-Darwish/IN-HELL/en/tile.
Datta-Ray, Sunanda. “Lingering Echoes of Fascism.” Telegraph India, July 11, 2020, https://www.telegraphindia.com/opinion/the-spectre-of-fascism-is-yet-to-be-conquered/cid/1785958.
Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Peace of Westphalia.” Accessed January 23, 2022, https://www.britannica.com/event/Peace-of-Westphalia.
Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Pogrom.” Accessed May 27, 2022, https://www.britannica.com/topic/pogrom.
Gettleman, Jeffrey, Suhasini Raj, and Sameer Yasir. “The Roots of the Delhi Riots: A Fiery Speech and an Ultimatum.” New York Times, accessed February 26, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/26/
world/asia/delhi-riots-kapil-mishra.html.
Ghose, Sanjoy. “The Judge Who Unseated a Prime Minister.” The Leaflet, published June 25, 2020, https://theleaflet.in/equality/the-judge-who-unseated-a-prime-minister.
Guha, Ramchandra. “An Open Letter to the Judges of the Supreme Court, With Respect, And in Anguish.” The Wire, published August 14, 2020, https://thewire.in/law/an-open-letter-to-the-judges-of-the-supreme-court-with-respect-and-in-anguish.
Hindutva Watch. “Lynchings.” Accessed May 22, 2020, https://hindutva
watch.org/lynching.
Hizb Ut-Tahrir Australia. “1857: When India’s Muslim Scholars Died for a Courageous Rebellion.” Published November 14, 2016, https://www.hizb-australia.org/2016/11/1857-when-indias-muslim-scholars-died-for-a-courageous-rebellion.
Horwitz, Jeff, and Newley Purnell. “Facebook Executive Supported India’s Modi, Disparaged Opposition in Internal Messages.” Wall Street Journal, August 30, 2020, https://www.wsj.com/articles/facebook-executive-supported-indias-modi-disparaged-opposition-in-interna
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Human Rights Watch. “Violent Cow Protection in India: Vigilante Groups Attack Minorities.” February 18, 2019, 3. https://www.hrw.org/repor
t/2019/02/18/violent-cow-protection-india/vigilante-groups-attack-minorities.
Indian Muslim Council—USA. “Golwalkar and the rise of militant Hindu nationalism.” Special Edition Digest, published February 2006, https://www.iamc.com/golwalkar_fascism/#S2H6.
Jaffrelot, Christophe. “Misunderstanding Secularism.” Indian Express, August 11, 2014, https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns
/misunderstanding-secularism.
Khan, Badre Alam. “Democracy, Hindu Majoritarianism and Question of the Socio-economic Rights.” Counter Currents, November 20, 2019, https://countercurrents.org/2019/11/democracy-hindu-majoritarianism-and-question-of-the-socio-economic-rights.
Kirmani, Nida. “How Oppressed are Muslims in India?” Herald, published August 2, 2016, https://herald.dawn.com/news/1153473.
Mander, Harsh. “In Hate Crime Fight, a Voice Still Feeble.” The Hindu, published August 1, 2019, https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/
in-hate-crime-fight-a-voice-still-feeble/article28775760.ece.
Meta. “Facebook, Community Standards Enforcement Report.” Transparency Centre, accessed June 1, 2022, https://transparency.fa
cebook.com/community-standards-enforcement.
Mittal, Sumedha. “Orphaned in the Delhi Riots, 18-Year-Old Salman Asks: ‘What Is Justice?” The Wire, August 14, 2020, https://thewire.in/
rights/northeast-delhi-riots-orphaned-justice.
Moitra, Mahua. “The Supreme Court of India is a Court of Rights, Not of Contempt.” The Wire, published August 14, 2020, https://thewire.in/law/the-supreme-court-of-india-is-a-court-of-rights-not-of-contempt.
Mustafa, Faizan. “#Babri Case: Why temples were destroyed in India? Episode 4: Explained by Prof. Faizan Mustafa.” Faizan Mustafa’s Legal Awareness Web Series: LAW’s, 17:02, uploaded September 29, 2019, https://youtu.be/D0k-23SCIyI.
Noorani, A.G. “Is Constitution ‘Anti-Hinduʼ or the RSS Anti-Indian?” Deccan Chronicle, published September 29, 2019, https://www.deccanchronicle.com/opinion/columnists/290919/is-constitution-anti-hindu-or-the-rss-anti-indian.html.
OHCHR. “What Are Human Rights?” Accessed June 10, 2022, https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Pages/WhatareHumanRights.aspx.
Organiser. “Call to Face the War on Hinduism,” January 8, 2006, https://www.organiser.org/archives/dynamic/modules5630.html?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=112&page=31.
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Perrigo, Billy. “It Was Already Dangerous to Be Muslim in India. Then Came the Coronavirus.” Time, April 3, 2020, https://time.com/
5815264/coronavirus-india-islamophobia-coronajihad.
Rickard, J. “Peace of Oliva, 3 May 1660.” Military History Encyclopaedia on the Web, accessed June 10, 2022, http://www.historyofwar.org/
articles/peace_oliva.html.
Roy, Debayan. “Can State Compel Citizens to Be Secular Given the Freedom of Religion? Plea in SC Seeks Removal of ‘Socialist’ and ‘Secular’ from Constitution.” Bar and Bench, accessed May 10, 2022, https://www.barandbench.com/news/plea-in-sc-for-removal-socialist-secular-from-constitution.
SAHRDC. “Submission to the 27th UPR Working Group Session on India: Annexure.” September 22, 2016. https://uprdoc.ohchr.org/uprweb/
downloadfile.aspx?filename=3727&file=Annexe2.
Schultz, Kai, Suhasini Raj, Jeffrey Gettleman, and Hari Kumar. “In India, Release of Hate Crime Data Depends on Who the Haters Are.” New York Times, October 24, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/
24/world/asia/india-modi-hindu-violence.html.
Scroll. “Fact Checker Pulls Down Hate Crime Database, IndiaSpend Editor Samar Halarnkar Resigns.” September 12, 2019, https://scroll.in/
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Siddiqui, Nizamuddin Ahmad, and Mohd Rehan. “The Dispossession of Muslim Identity in India.” The Leaflet, March 31, 2025, https://thele
aflet.in/religion/the-dispossession-of-muslim-identity-in-india.
Sikander, Zainab. “Indian Media Is Waging a Holy War Against Muslims. It Acts Like Hyenas.” The Print, April 13, 2020, https://theprint.in/
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The Wire. “SC Refrains From Restoring 4G Services in J&K, Sets Up Special Committee.” May 11, 2020, https://thewire.in/law/supreme-court-jammu-kashmir-4g-internet-special-committee.
6) Miscellaneous
Haque, Mohammad Mohibul. “The Rights of Minorities in India with Special Reference to The Role of The National Commission for Minorities.” PhD thesis, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 2009.
Law Commission of India. Hate Speech (Report No. 267). Law Commission of India, March 23, 2017. http://lawcommissionofindia.nic.in/
reports/Report267.pdf.
Pande, Mrinal. “Government Forcing Media to Speak in Their Support.” YouTube, uploaded September 4, 2019, https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=MsEG9Cz0Cz0.
Sana, Arshia. “Hate Crimes Against Minorities in Contemporary India: Understanding the Model of Hate and Response of Indian State Underpinning International Human Rights Law.” LLM thesis, University of Westminster, Westminster, 2020.
Siddiqui, Nizamuddin Ahmad. “Waqf Act and the Erosion of Muslim Rights.” YouTube, June 24, 2025, https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=Icdh0tgFLVE.
