نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی
عنوان مقاله English
نویسنده English
Discrimination and xenophobia are threats to peace, and in many occasions have led to armed conflicts. Similarly the UN Special Rapporteur on Racism, Doudou Diène finds racism and xenophobia, rather than terrorism, as “the most serious threats to democracy”. On the other hand, international struggle against non-discrimination, fascism and xenophobia, along with protection of minorities, has been concentrated on the racial and national aspects of vulnerable people, rather than the religious ones. This policy seems no more adequate when as Abdelfattah Amor, the former UN Special Rapporteur on religious intolerance states that “there are borderline cases where racial and religious distinctions are far from clear cut. Abdelfattah Amor adds, “apart from any discrimination, the identity of many minorities, or even large groups of people, is defined by both racial and religious aspects. Hence, many instances of discrimination are aggravated by the effects of multiple identities.” Similarly Diène refers to “the centrality of the amalgamation of the factors of race, culture and religion in the post-9/11 ideological atmosphere of intolerance and polarization.”
کلیدواژهها English
Boyle, Kevin. “Religious Intolerance and the Incitement of Hatred.” in Sandra Coliver (ed.) Striking a Balance: Hate Speech, Freedom of Expression and Non- discrimination, Article 19. London: Human Rights Centre, University of Essex, 1992.
Capotorti, Francesco. Study on the Rights of Persons Belonging to Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities. New York: Centre for Human Rights, Geneva, United Nations, 1991.
Evans, Carolyn. Freedom of Religion under the European Convention. Oxford/NY: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Fargues, Philippe. “Demographic Islamization: Non-Muslims in Muslim Countries.” SAIS Review 21, no. 2 (2001): 103-116.
Ghanea, Nazila. “The Right to Freedom of Religion or Belief in International Human Rights Law and Inter-faith Dialogue.” in Mofid University, Collected Papers, Collected Papers of the International Conference on Human Rights and Dialogue of Civilization. Qom: Mofid University Publication Institute, 2001.
Gordon, Paul. “Racist Violence: The Expression of Hate in Europe.” in Sandra Coliver (ed.) Striking a Balance: Hate Speech, Freedom of Expression and Non- discrimination. Colchester: University of Essex, 1992.
Ipgrave, Michael. “Religious Freedom: A Christian Perspective from Britain.” in Collected Papers of the International Conference on Human Rights and Dialogue of Civilization. Qom: Mofid University Publication Institute, 2001.
Krishnaswami, Arcot. Study of Discrimination in the Matter of Religious Rights and Practices. NY: United Nations Publication, Sales No.60.XIV.2, 1960.
Masters, Bruce. Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab world. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Oyediran, Jonna. “Article 13(5) of the American Convention on Human Rights.” in Striking a Balance: Hate Speech, Freedom of Expression and Non- discrimination, Article 19, edit. Sandra Coliver, London: Human Rights Centre, University of Essex, 1992.
Ronen, Yehudit. “Religion and Conflict in Sudan: A Non-Muslim Minority in a Muslim State.” in Orfa Bengio & Gabriel Ben-Dor (eds.) Minorities and the State in the Arab World. Denver: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1999.
Weller, Paul. “The Dimensions and Dynamics of Religious Discrimination: Findings and Analysis from the UK.” in Nazila Ghanea (ed.) The Challenge of Religious Discrimination at the Dawn of the New Millennium, Leiden /Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003.
Secretary General of the Muslim Council of Britain(MCB), available at: <www.muslimnews.co.uk/news/news.php?Article=8153> .
The text of The Race Relations Act 1976 and the Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2002 is available at: <www.homeoffice.gov.uk/docs/racerel1.html> and <www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si2003/20031626.htm>.
Tore Modeen, ‘The International Protection of National Minorities in Europe’ (Abo: Abo Akademi, 1969) p. 182, available at Iranian Student News Agency at : <http://www.isn.ethz.ch/5isf/5/Papers/Buchsbaum_paper_III.4.pdf> .
UN News Centre, ‘Racism and Racial Discrimination on Rise Around the World, UN Expert Warns’, 7 March 2006, available at: http://www.un.org/apps/news/ story.asp?NewsID=17718&Cr=racis&Cr1
Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopaedia, available at: <http://www.reference.com/ browse/wiki/Blasphemy> .
Amor, Abdelfattah (2000). “Racial Discrimination and Religious Discrimination: Identification and Measures”, presented at the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance at Geneva, 1‑5 May 2000, U.N. Doc.A/CONF.189/PC.1/7 (13 April 2000).
Charter of the United Nations, June 26, 1945, 59 Stat. 1031, T.S. 993, 3 Bevans 1153, entered into force, 24 Oct. 1945.
Choudhury v. U. Kappliction No.17439/1990 reprinted in 12 Hum. R. L. J. 172-73 (1991).
Constitution of Malaysia, 31 Aug. 1957, amended 16 Sept. 1963.
Declaration on Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and Discrimination Based on Religion or
Belief, G.A. res. 36/55, 36 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 51) at 171, U.N. Doc. A/36/684 (1981).
Gay News Ltd. v. United Kingdom, 5 Eur. H.R. Rep. 123, P11 (1983) (Commission report).
Human Rights Committee, General Comment 10, Article 19 (Nineteenth session, 1983),
Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.6 at 132 (2003).
Human Rights Committee, General Comment 23, Article 27 (Fiftieth session, 1994), U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.5 (1994), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.6 at 158 (2003)., para. 6.2.
Human Rights Committee: Consideration of Reports Submitted by States Parties, Second periodic report (Algeria), para.160, U.N. Doc. CCPR.C.101.Add.1 (18 May 1998). The legislation of Iran and Pakistan will be discussed in section 3.1 of this book. For another example see Article 103 of 1990 Yemen Law on the Press and Publications, Law No 25, signed in Dec. 1990.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), G.A. res. 2200A (XXI), 21 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 16) at 52, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 999 U.N.T.S. 171, entered into force, 23 March 1976.
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), G.A. res. 2200A (XXI), 21 U.N.GAOR Supp. (No. 16) at 49, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 993 U.N.T.S. 3, entered into force, 3 Jan. 1976.
Prosecutor v. Blagojevic, [2001] ICTY 10 (9 Oct. 2001), Case No. IT-02-60-PT, etc.
Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic [2004] ICTY 7 (19 April 2004), Case No: IT-98-33-A,
Great Britain, Law Commission, Offences against Religion and Public Worship (London H.M.S.O., 1981), pp.2-3.
Section 188 of Austrian Penal Code, reprinted in Otto-Preminger, 295 Eur. Ct. H.R. (Ser. A) at 12.
The American Convention on Human Rights, O.A.S. Treaty Series No. 36, 1144 U.N.T.S. 123, entered into force, 18 July 1978, reprinted in Basic Documents Pertaining to Human Rights in the Inter-American System, OEA/Ser.L.V/II.82 doc.6 rev.1 at 25 (1992).
The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR), 213 U.N.T.S. 222, entered into force, 3 Sept. 1953, Protocols Nos 3, 5, 8, and 11 which entered into force, 21 Sept. 1970, 20 Dec. 1971, 1 Jan. 1990, and 1 Nov. 1998.
The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD), G.A. res. 2106 (XX), Annex, 20 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 14) at 47, U.N. Doc. A/6014 (1966), 660 U.N.T.S. 195, entered into force, 4 Jan. 1969.
UN Doc. A/HRC/2/3, ‘Incitement to Racial and Religious Hatred and the Promotion of Tolerance’, 20 September 2006.
UN Doc. E/CN.4/2006/17, ‘Situation of Muslims and Arab Peoples in Various Parts of the World’, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), G.A. res. 217A (III), U.N. Doc A/810 at 71 (1948).
